CUT FLOWER CULTIVATION (Floriculture-Rose)

CUT FLOWER CULTIVATION (Floriculture-Rose)

Prathyusha   July 02, 2019

During past times ornamental plants are part of rich man’s garden. In recent years scenario changed and floriculture gained interest for small scale farmers in growing as entrepreneurs. Floriculture is cultivation of flowers and ornamental crops from seed and grafted stage till they reach market. Cut flowers have a large market in recent days and are definite hosts for celebrations in metro cities. Floriculture market is not only confined to cut flowers but also has its shade in supplying raw materials for cosmetics, perfumes and pharmaceuticals relying on natural products. Apart from traditional loose flowers like Jasmines and Marigold many other cut flowers along with their stems have gained florists interest. Roses, Gladiolus, Lilies, Carnations, Orchids, Tulips, Gerbera are most common cut flowers for bouquets and decorative purposes. 

Roses

Roses are one of the oldest and widest cultivated flower species on earth. Apart from using rose oil and rose water in the cosmetics and soaps, the oils are well known members of Ayurvedic healing treatments. Throwing back its utilization in cosmetic industry, roses always stand as topper in decorations as cut flowers, bouquets and garden displays.

Rose flower cultivation 

Floribundas, Hybrid Tea, Polyanthus, China roses, Miniature roses, Grandiflora, Ballerina and Bourbon roses are common names known among cultivators. Floribunda and Hybrid Tea are well known for cut flowers usage and are cultivated in a number of attractive colors. Miniature roses are popular for garden designing as pot decorators.

Plant material for cultivation:

Roses are cultivated by asexual means of reproduction. Grafting, budding and stem cutting are used in propagating rose species. Plants are grafted for protecting its vigor and longevity. T-shield budding is best known for cultivation of hybrid roses like Floribunda and hybrid T roses.

1. T- Shield budding:

Small swellings visible on the rose stem are selected such that eyes only bud up but have not grown or elongated. The part containing eye on bud wood (one containing eye) is cut with budding knife and shield piece having bark and eye are separated from interior stem piece. Simultaneously root stock is prepared by removing off side shoots and branches. A small T shaped pocket (a vertical cut) is made on root stock at anterior edge nearly 3 inches away from internode. The shield containing eye is accommodated into this vertical cut on root stock and tied with fiber ensuring enough air reaches the bud. Off shoots and suckers from root stocks should be pinched off otherwise growth of bud may be suppressed and root stock continues its growth. Stem part above bud is cut off after bud insertion for successful budding operation. 

Fall of leaf petiole above to the inserted bud after few days of bud insertion is a sign of successful budding. If leaf petiole has not fallen off properly but still hangs onto stem and bud has turned into black color indicates that budding has failed and need to be repeated.  

2. Cutting:

Stem cuttings are made from healthy and disease free root stocks at length of minimum 12 cm using sharp budding knife at inclined angles. The cut ends are dipped in IA (Indole 3- acetic acid) and BA (6- Benzyl adenine) suspension and planted in moist chambers for efficient and quicker root induction. Roots grow well after 12 to 15 weeks of planting the stem cuts. Then plantlets are manured well for growth of foliage and aerial parts.

Whether budding or grafting?

Each node is potential source of bud in case of T- shield budding. So a single healthy stem can be a source for multiple number of buds. And a single rose twig can produce numerous clones. Stem cuttings on other hand can give a single plantlet. So horticulturist cultivate through budding to produce more and more number of plants if farm is developed from primary stage. Otherwise if the farm is under extension, stem cuttings can serve best use on such small scale needs.

When the root stocks have special disease resistance, insect resistance characters and that need to be implicated in multiple copies, budding is performed. 

Success rate depends on callus formation between bud and root stock. This depends on genetic incompatibility between partners. The area of union should not be too wet and needs well aeration for callus to develop. Success rate is more if selected partners are from same genera, species.  

Farm land Preparation and planting:

• Roses are hardy plants and produce flowers on year long time scale. So plant beds are prepared keeping in mind that plants live there for repeated seasons. They grow well in loamy soils with adequate amount of organic content. 
• The farm land needs to be well tilled and left exposed to sun light at least one month prior to planting. Hence the best season for preparing plant bed is during May – June. So once the monsoon starts, plantlets are planted and so conditions are ambient for small plantlets to acclimate for field conditions. Pits are made prior to planting such that plantlet can accommodate well along with earthened soil in order to maintain the microenvironment at root interface.
• If planted from stem cuttings, main stem is placed in center of pit and soil is covered over the pit.
• If planted from T-buds the root stock is planted into soil pit such that bud (eye that has elongated on the new root stock) is above the soil and adequate amount of sunlight reaches it. Plantlets are watered well and sunlight should not be too harsh till root system develops. Field should be drained well to avoid water logging for newly developed roots.
• Post planting the soil beds need to be well irrigated with salt free water. Plants need perfect sunlight and humidity needs to be well maintained in green houses.
• Good amount of sunlight with duration of minimum 6 hours is necessary for healthy vegetative growth.

Flowering and farm maintenance:

1.Pruning

Pruning is removing the dead and diseased ends. In farms that are cultivating from repeated seasons pruning is a necessary step before buds start to grow. Pruning is performed when the plants are nearing dormant stage. All the suckers arising from root stocks, criss-cross tangled shoots, dry and less vigorous stems are lost in this step. This ensures breaking dormancy and buds initiate on fresh and strong stems. Using cutters, old dead ends are cut at 45 degree angle into a clean sharp cut. Hybrid teas and floribundas flower nearly after 45 days of pruning.

2.Manuring: 

Nitrogen and Potassium are essential for healthy stem growth and flower bud development. Deficiency of nitrogen can lead to small sized leaves and weaker stems. Phosphorous ensures healthy root growth and stimulates flowering. It can be provided as phosphoric acid or super phosphate. Foliar spray of micronutrients with magnesium and borax supplements ensures good quality flowers.  

3.Disbudding:

Few varieties produce multiple buds (main bud accompanied by small side buds) below the center main bud. Side buds are disbudded at earlier stages of development in order to avoid wound scars for cut flowers. Disbudding ensures farmers with stem ending in a single large and attractive bud that attains profit in market.

4.Irrigation: 

Roses demand bigger water needs and field needs to be well irrigated with salt free water after pruning for healthy foliage development. Farmers must ensure that water do not log the root system otherwise roots face aeration issues. Weeding needs to be performed on interval basis manually.

Harvest and post harvest measures:

Flowers are harvested in a tight bud stage, just after petals have gained full color and start unfolding. This is performed during mornings or evenings using sharp blades and cut stem ends are placed in water immediately for prolonged freshness. Flowers are stored at 2-4°C cold storage and segregated based on stem length. Grade 1 flowers with a stem length 45 cm and grade 2 flowers having 30-35 cm are packed separately. 10-12 flowers per bunch are generally packed in corrugated card board boxes in-lined with news paper or tissue paper. 

Trade and profit:

Roses have a good market in National and International market. As a bottom line good quality flowers ensure handful profit for cultivator. On an average cut flowers are sold at Rs 10 per piece and loose flowers at Rs 2000 per kilogram. Hybrid Tea yields around 80 flowers per plant per year and Floribunda yields 90 flowers per plant per year. Roses being perennial plants draw a handsome amount of profit to the cultivator.

Is Non Carbon Based life Possible?

Is Non Carbon Based life Possible?

SCIENCE ARENA   April 30, 2019

Could there be non carbon based life?

Well how far studied and the scientific facts shows that life without carbon is not likely to be possible.

Why life is possible due to carbon is here:

1. Carbon is most abundant and perfect atom to be fitted in any biomolecule.
2. Although there are lot of similar atoms which have same valencies like Silicon, lead, Germanium, and Tin but they have larger electron cloud size than carbon due to which they do not fit in aby biomolecule perfectly as carbon exist. Even many times in a same molecule.
3. Carbon forms toxic as well as non-toxic components in a cellular system. Since they are all madeup of Carbon so they are easily transformed but when it comes for silicon, they form toxic elements.

There are some possibilities that life without carbon is possible:

1. Perfect replacement of carbon which act like it and have same physio and chemical properties like carbon.
2. If not then any atom have four valencies but an replacement of oxygen atom because the atoms known either degrade or form toxic components when comes in contact with oxygen, so an alternative atom must be present if you are expecting Silicon, Germanium, or Lead.
3. Second most thing it should be abundant biologically and form approx 90% or more than of biomass.

How far I know or the current research is depicting :- that Carbon and its derivatives are found in other planets. Methane is also found on some places which is a good indicator of life.

If any of the molecule satisfies these points then yes It is possible

All I want to conclude is that the life evolved on earth 4.5 billion years ago (records says) and through this long time only capable and molecules have bioactivity are able to form a living system. Those who are not are still harmfull for us either in small amounts or in any other way..

Human Gene Editing Could be a key to immortality!

Human Gene Editing Could be a key to immortality!

SCIENCE ARENA   April 30, 2019

Human gene editing could be the key to advancing towards immortality. But even so, is this grounds for humans to do so? Should humans become immortal?

Human Gene editing for becoming immortal or other experimentation is not ethical as per the human perspective and safety. This is because the technology was invented to cure and treat the genetic inborn diseases which increases the lofe expectancy, not to become immortal. Gene Therapy | Medical Evolution read this article for more information.

As Humans are most intelligent and can take their decisions own they can do this. But humanity doesn't allow this. Because wvery species posses wild genome aka its original genome content. If any change occurs the species become polluted however they are beneficial for us but they are unnatural. Second thing nature restricts these unnatural things for example mules and transgenders whjch have genetic alterations they naturally become infertile so they can nkt comtinue their generation, hence naturally eliminated from the nature.

The next question is Should Humans Become Immortal?

So, its upon the human population that what is wants. However nature has their own rules and regulations to run the ecosystem and limited resources. So doing yhis humanity will face a lot.

So, you should conclude here what you got! Please comment.

I concluded that gene wditing is a good technique to eradicate the genetic diseases and improve the life expectancy of patients. However if this technology may bring immortality than human beings grow tremendously and humanity will face a lot in terms of resources. Environmental Pollution caused by human over past decades.[1]

Think, At this population level we are harming our environment at alarming rate if we will become immortal than what else we can do?

Footnotes

[1] https://www.sciencearena.in/envi...

 Not for Reproduction · Answer requested by Sujatha Shankar

  

IN OTHER LANGUAGES

हिन्दी में: इस सवाल पर Gautam Singh Rathore का जवाब: मानव जीन संपादन अमरता की ओर अग्रसर होने की कुंजी हो सकता है। लेकिन फिर भी, क्या इंसानों के लिए ऐसा करना आधार है? क्या इंसान को अमर हो जाना चाहिए?

Water | Nutrient or Not!

Water | Nutrient or Not!

SCIENCE ARENA   April 03, 2019

Nutrients are the biological molecules or chemical compounds which are required for the growth and development of an individual or cell.  The nutrients are classified in to two categories based on the carbon content,  Organic and Inorganic nutrients. 

The nutrients which have hydrocarbons as their backbone are Organic nutrients and those who doesn't lacks hydrocarbons as backbone are inorganic nutrients. 

Do You Consider Water As Nutrient? 

Broadly, in terms of food nutrients are proteins, vitamins, minerals and  carbohydrates. These my be organic or inorganic. 

Any chemical compound is considered as nutrient when it is essential for the organism or cell or have significance in the bio-chemical pathway of the cell. 

A nutrient must have following properties: 

• It should be bio-active and bio-available. 
• It must contain hydrogen or carbon in its chemical structure.
• It should be metabolized.
• It should be required in adequate manner. 
• Nutrients must be a source of energy or any molecule which is responsible for energy or biological factors. 

Water is required by any cell because it is universal solvent and have unique properties.  It is metabolized by body and have significance in various biological pathways.  Water does not contributes in the production of energy or any other molecules but helps in the formation and packaging of several bio-molecules. 

Health And Nutrition

Traditional Water Purification Techniques

Traditional Water Purification Techniques

SCIENCE ARENA   March 16, 2019

Water pollution is the major problem which is being faced by every country and due to water pollution, it is not healthy to drink and doing any household activity.

Learn more about Water Pollution!

Traditional Water purification techniques

• Boiling
• Sunlight Exposure
• Chlorination
• Flocculation
• Filtration-Straining
• Three-Pot Treatment

AN OVERVIEW OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

AN OVERVIEW OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

SCIENCE ARENA   January 31, 2019

Biotechnology deals with the field of bio-sciences with technology to generate efficient and better biological assays and applications. In biotechnology living systems are introduced or modified with the high-throughput techniques to amplify the results and lowering the cost and time. 

For example, Modern breads and cheese are manufactured by using microbes which are genetically modified and targeted for specific biological pathways to give suitable or desired products. Modern biotechnology is totally different from the conventional biotechnology. In conventional biotechnology the techniques and results are very poor and very much labour intensive, but in modern biotechnology the desired ones are only harvested by using modern technology of gene transfer and gene editing.  

Recent advancements in biotechnology are helping modern technologies and sciences to deal with the social needs: 

Cure and Heal the World

There are 250+ vaccines and medicines are developed with the help of biotechnology to cure and prevent the disease. It also includes detection and its techniques to cure or diagnose any disease at early stage.

Fuel the World

Modern biotechnology has grown so far, Bio-fuels like Ethanol and Methane are produced by using yeast and other micro-organisms. The fuels produced by biotechnology are eco-friendly and said to be next generation fuels.

Production of High quality Foods

Today the available foods are having multiple qualities and have greater amount of nutrition with long lasting lifespan. This is done by using modern biotechnology. Green revolution was the first step towards the modern biotechnology which focused on high yielding crops.

Applications of Biotechnology:

In Agriculture 

Modern agriculture is totally based on the biotechnology, and biotechnology has modified and upgraded several crop species to increase the yield these include:

Tomatoes: Their shelf life is increased by introducing the hybrid RNA which slower downs the process of its peel degradation.

Sugarcane: The length of the plant is modified by making hybrids of two sugarcane species to stand for more time.

Wheat: length of the plants is lowered down by gene editing due to which their stems become strong and don’t fell down in blowing air.

Rice: The varieties are improved or can be said to be fortified in higher nutritional content.  

And many more are modified for different environmental and character needs. So far biotechnology is also used in making plants resistance from pest making pest resistance. Some other biological products and their production are facilitated by biotechnologies which are essential oils and secondary metabolites which are being used in medical and other industry.

 In Medicine 

When Biotechnology deals with medical science it becomes medical biotechnology. Role of biotechnology in the medical science speeded up the treatment and diagnosis process of the diseases. However biotechnology is still young and evolving, new efficient techniques are yet to be discovered.

Gene therapy and DNA fingerprinting began a revolution in medical sciences; DNA fingerprinting is widely used in early diagnosis of the hereditary diseases while Gene therapy corrects the genes which are defective. However Gene therapy is most costly and available for very few diseases. 

Biotechnology uses transgenic techniques to obtain several biological molecules which are used in medicines called as bio-pharmaceuticals. Transgenic animals and plants are made to obtain these desired products.     

   

In Environment

Modern biotechnology is dealing in to protect and restore the environment. Biotechnology contributes to pollution control and ways to reduce the pollution. Also alternatives are developed and tested regularly to for better implementation. It also focuses on reducing the environmental hazards like harmful chemicals and their extraction from environment etc. 

Today’s major problem is environmental pollution and the main causes are plastics. Biotechnology is developing the bio-plastics can be a great alternative to plastics. This bio-plastic is more eco-friendly with environment and less harmful.

Conservation of natural resources and Plants are also taken care by biotechnology. New ways and techniques are also developed by biotechnologists to save the plants and natural resources.  

ROLE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN DISEASE DIAGNOSIS 

In order to treat any disease it is most important to identify and diagnose the disease first. The early stage and causes of the disease are diagnosed for this several techniques are developed like ELISA- Enzyme Linked Immunosorbant Assay Which is used to diagnose HIV and other viral infections. Blotting techniques are used to diagnose various disease and hereditary disorders.

TRANGENIC ANIMALS – greatest achievement of biotechnology  

Transgenic animals are the genetically modified animals which have been introduced by the gene of interest. They are also called as GMO (Genetically modifies Organisms).  Examples: Rats, Mouse, Sheep, Goat etc.

Importance of Transgenic animals:

They are used as model organisms in the pre-clinical trials.

Used to study the effects of drugs.

Used to study and development of gene regulations.

Study of toxicology

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY 

Modern food, medical and agriculture industries completely rely on the biotechnology. It is obvious to use cheaper products than costly ones, which is done by biotechnology. Several biotechnological techniques reduced the production costs and time by using natural or modified machinery called as bio-reactors or carried out in-vivo. You can monitor your daily stuffs available in the market and reach to the conclusion. 

DISADVANTAGES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

No doubt biotechnology has very much importance in modern science, but due to an adverse impact it has some limits: 

Through the transgene experiments, the wild gnomes are getting disappeared or you can say it as gene pollution. Alterations in one’s gene over long time causes in the deletion of wild genome. 

Vitamins and Minerals requirement in a day

Vitamins and Minerals requirement in a day

SCIENCE ARENA   December 25, 2018

Following data can be used to make diet plan be sure about your daily calorie uptake based on your requirements, the following table is made at 2300 Kcal per average person.  

To Know More about Vitamins click here

Follow ICMR guidlines if you have any deficiency. Click here to know disease caused by vitamins deficiency.

To know more about FSSAI and ICMR Click here

RDA VALUES BY FSSAI AND ICMR [STANDARD]

VITAMINS & MINERALS CONSUMPTIONS AS PER FSSAI GUIDELINES (minimum requirement a day)

 

1.VITAMINS	PER 100Kcal	PER 2300 kcal
	minimum	Minimum/day
A(RATINOL)	35 mcg	805 mcg
B1(THIAMINE)	0.06mg	1.38 mg
B2(RIBOFLAVIN)	0.08mg	1.84 mg
B3(NIACIN)	0.9mg	20.7 mg
B5(PANTOTHENIC ACID)	0.15mg	3.45 mg
B6(PYRIDOXINE)	0.08mg	1.84 mg
B7(BIOTIN)	0.75mcg	17.25 mcg
B9(FOLIC ACID)	10 mcg	230 mcg
B12(CYNOCOBALAMINE)	0.07 mcg	1.6 mcg
C(ASCORBIC ACID0	2.25 mcg	21.75 mcg
D(ERGOCALCIFEROL)	0.5 mcg	11.5 mcg
E(TOCOPHEROL)	0.5g of polyunsaturated fatty acids expressed as linoleic acid but in no case less than 0.1mg per 100available Kcal	2.3 mg
K(PHYLLOQUINONE)	3.5mcg	80.5 mcg
2.MINERALS
SODIUM	30mg	690 mg
CHLORIDE	30mg	690 mg
POTASSIUM	80mg	1840 mg
CALCIUM	35mg	805 mg
PHOSPHORUS	30mg	690 mg
MAGNESIUM	7.5mg	172.5 mg
IRON	0.5mg	11.5 mg
ZINC	0.5mg	11.5 mg
COPPER	60mcg	1380 mcg
IODINE	6.5mcg	149.5 mcg
SELENIUM	2.5mcg	57.5 mcg
MANGANESE	0.05mg	1.15 mg
CHROMIUM	1.25mcg	28.75 mcg
MOLYBDENUM	3.5mcg	80.5 mcg

Health And Nutrition

DIY Cures for Common Skin issues

DIY Cures for Common Skin issues

SCIENCE ARENA   December 22, 2018

Skin is the most sensitive and first line of defense as well as represents beauty. To remain Healthy, skin needs fresh nutrients and proper natural cares. Here are some interesting DIY hacks for common skin issues...... ;

Anti-oxidants work as anti-ageing agents, the naturally occurring fruits and vegetables are best solutions for skin problems. Using natural chemicals we have one benefit they can be easily degraded by our body cells without any negative effects. 

LEMON AND TOMATO 🍅 

FOR ALL SKIN TYPES 

Lemon contains citric acid which can change pH value of the skin. The pH value determines the skin's acidity or alkalinity.  Tomato juice soothes the skin. 

Apply fresh lemon and tomato juice after washing your face. Wash it off after waiting for  10-15 minutes. 

A TOUCH OF CURD 

FOR DRY SKIN 

Curd contains Vitamin C and Vitamin B's in high quantity with Zinc and Calcium which makes it natural skin care. Banana contains Lectin. It is a kind of protein that destroys acne causing bacteria. Mix well banana and Honey with curd before using.

In case of dry skin, the pH level is more and needs to be reduced. Mix curd and honey in equal quantities after that add a smaller portion of banana to it. Apply and wash it off in 10-15 minutes.

POMEGRANATE PUNCH 

FOR SENSITIVE SKIN 

Pomegranate is a rich source of vitamin C and has anti-ageing and anti-oxidant properties. Apply probiotic curd properly on the face as a pack and wash it off after 5 minutes.  

Make a face pack using pomegranate paste and 1 table spoon honey.  Apply this paste on your face and neck and wash it off with rose water after 30 minutes. 

Skin is very much sensitive part of the body and shows reaction with any type of uncertainty. Proper natural cure makes these problems away.
Take care of it.....!
You have better ideas on it please share with us... We would love to hear from you..

Disclaimer:- For any recurring and long term problem related to skin consult the expert. 

WHY TO USE DIANABOL (METHANDINONE OR DBOL) and it's SIDE EFFECTS

WHY TO USE DIANABOL (METHANDINONE OR DBOL) and it's SIDE EFFECTS

Unknown   December 12, 2018

Gym lover uses dianabol as a supplement to increase their muscle size in short duration of time, without knowing the side effects of the dianabol.  Yes, dianabol increases the muscle mass within 4 to 6 week by  increasing the protein synthesis in our body, the health supplements should be consumed under the guidance of the health professionals, other wise you may face these side effects :

Side effects of Dianabol 

Besides it have lot of benefits  but it is really harmful to use without the consult of any  Doctor. Dianabol increases the Blood pressure of individual, acne starts appearing more on face and specially on back,  mood swings arises on normal situation and many other problems arise who use Dianabol as a supplement of body building. Proper doses are taken to avoid more serious problems.  The major side effects occurs to the liver, liver damages  because when you take Dianabol enzymatic activity increases in the liver therefore liver goes in the stressed condition and will damage, if high doses are taken by the individual for long. Person must use liver protector to avoid the damage of the liver like Liv52 and Milk thistle, milk thistle is not only used a liver protect but it is also used to cure the liver from prior use of dianabol so one who have used dianabol and didn’t took liver protector can use it now to cure it.

If you use dianabol than keep in trace the blood pressure of your body.

Testosterone levels are also suppressed in our body; it lowers the count of sperm in our semen. It makes sperm weaker due to which they cannot reach the egg and can’t start the processes of fertilization which is required to produce baby.

ADMINISTRATION AND USE

Dianabol is taken orally and injections are also used to introduce them in the body. Usually  use of dianabol are divided in three stages- 
Beginners minimum dose 10mg-15mg and maximum 25mg, 
Intermediate minimum 25mg-30mg and maximum 40mg whereas 
Advance minimum 40mg-50mg and maximum 80mg. some of advance trainer claims that they use 100mg during their bulking cycle. Any excess dose can create a serious problem to the individual; one should have a great knowledge of the dose and how to use it in proper way.

You must prefer your health consultant to use the muscle gainers.

Directions to Consume

WHAT TODO TO REDUCE THE SIDE EFFECT OF DIANABOL?

A proper PTC (Post Cycle Therapy) is required to remove the toxic substance of Dianabol from the body. When you end your Dianabol cycle it is important to do post cycle therapy to help the body to start the production of testosterone on its own as dianabol suppresses the production of testosterone. Bodybuilder usually uses CLOMID and NOLVADEX for 4 to 6 weeks and takes doses around 150mg or 40mg respectively as PTC.

Day 1 to 10 HCG is taken around 500-1000iµ

Day 11 to week 3 = 40mg clomid and 150mg nolvadex

Week 4 to 5 = 20 mg clomid and 100mg nolvadex

Week 6 to 7 = 10mg clomid and 75mg of nolvadex

( Concentration of clomid and nolvadex are reduced to make body comfortable to produce the testosterone.)

The medications in this therapy are recommended by my health professional by examining my health and side effects, Please consult your Health professionals before starting.

Product of PTC

Clomid in market is available by name = Siphene 50 or Clofert 50.

Nolvadex = Mamofen 20 or Tamoxinfin 10 or Tamtero 10.

HCG = Corion, Hucog-5000hp.

Note: The product in this article which are mentioned are for indicative purposes, if you are willing to use them consult with your Health professionals or Doctor. 

Pollution scenario in India

Pollution scenario in India

SCIENCE ARENA   December 03, 2018

With rapid increase in population, the levels of pollution and their sources also increased alarmingly. WHO states that India's pollution rate is very much high in past decades, this is due to over use of pollutants knowing it effects.

Which pollution is most affecting India?

All the pollution Air, Water,  and Land are interconnected to each other in a disciplinary way that one have impact on others. 

But based on the situations Air pollution is the leading cause of the several Health problems in India. This is due to Rapid increase in the industries, who do not follow GMP (Good manufacturing Practices). After Industries the vehicles and refrigerators responsible for air pollution.

The major pollutants are released by these two components. 

Recent studies states that the Asthma and Heart disease rates become higher in India, resulted by the Air Pollutants. 

Scenario of Pollution in Major Indian Cities

Top Polluted Cities In India of 2018 

So in which city you are and How much it is polluted....... Rank your city based on Air quality....! 

INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGICAL DATABASES

INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGICAL DATABASES

SCIENCE ARENA   November 03, 2018

As biology has increasingly turned into a data-rich science, the need for storing and communicating large datasets has grown rapidly.  The  examples are the nucleotide sequences, the protein sequences, and the 3D structural data produced by X-ray crystallography and macromolecular NMR. 

Bioinformatics is the application of Information technology to store, organize and analyze the vast amount of biological data which is available in the form of sequences and structures of proteins (the building blocks of organisms) and nucleic acids (the information carrier). The biological information of nucleic acids is available  as sequences while  the data of proteins is available as sequences and structures. Sequences are represented in single dimension where as the structure contains the three dimensional data of sequences.

There are two main functions of biological databases:

• Make biological data available to scientists.              As much as possible of a particular type of information should be available in one single place (book, site, and database). Published data may be difficult to find or access and collecting it from the literature is very time- consuming. And not all data is actually published explicitly in an article (genome sequences!).
• To make biological data available in computer-readable form.

Since analysis of biological data almost always involves computers, having the data in computer-readable form (rather than printed on paper) is a necessary first step.

Types of data generated by  research:

• Nucleotide sequences (DNA and mRNA)
• Protein sequences
• 3-D protein structures
• Complete genomes and maps

Based on this information and further research also we have 

• Gene Expression data
• Polymorphism 

Historical Aspects behind the Databases 

The first idea about creating a database was came in existence when Sanger first discovered the method to sequence proteins.

The first database was created within a short period after the Insulin protein sequence was made available in 1956. Incidentally, Insulin is the first protein to be sequenced. The sequence of Insulin consisted of just 51 residues (analogous to alphabets in a sentence) which characterize the sequence. Around mid nineteen sixties, the first nucleic acid sequence of Yeast tRNA with 77 bases (individual units of nucleic acids) was found out. During this period, 3D structures of proteins were studied and the well known Protein Data Bank was developed as the first protein structure database with only 10 entries in 1972.  This has now grown in to a large database with over 10,000 entries. While the initial databases of protein sequences were maintained at the individual laboratories, the development of a consolidated formal database known as SWISS-PROT protein sequence database was initiated in 1986 which now has about 70,000 protein sequences from more than 5000 model organisms, a small fraction of all known organisms. These huge varieties of divergent data resources are now available for study and research by both academic institutions and industries. These are made available as public domain information in the larger interest of research community through Internet  and CDROMs. These databases are constantly updated with additional entries.

Biological Databases 

Biological databases can be broadly classified into sequence and structure databases. Sequence databases are applicable to both nucleic acid sequences and protein sequences, whereas structure database is applicable to only Proteins. 

Databases in general can be classified in to

1. Primary Database 
2. Secondary Database 
3. Composite Databases 
4. Structure Databases

A primary database contains information of the sequence or structure alone. Examples of these include Swiss-Prot and PIR for protein sequences, GenBank and  DDBJ for Genome sequences and the Protein Databank for protein structures. In this database the data is originally obtained and maintained for further studies.

Primary Nucleotide Sequence Repository – GenBank, EMBL, DDBJ

Primary Protein Sequence Repositories--PIR-PSD or protein information resource – protein sequence database, at the NBRF (National Biomedical Research Foundation, USA), and SWISS-PROT at the SBI (Swiss Biotechnology Institute, Switzerland 

A secondary database contains derived information from the primary database. A secondary sequence database contains information like the conserved sequence, signature sequence and active site residues of the protein families arrived by multiple sequence alignment of a set of related proteins. A secondary structure database contains entries of  the PDB in an organized way. These contain entries that are classified according to their structure like all alpha proteins, all beta proteins, etc. These also contain information on conserved secondary structure motifs of a particular protein. Some of the secondary database created and hosted by various researchers at their individual laboratories includes SCOP, developed at Cambridge University; CATH developed at University College of London, PROSITE of Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, eMOTIF at Stanford.

Composite database contains a variety of different primary database sources, which obviates the need to search multiple resources. Different composite database use different primary database and different criteria in their search algorithm. Various options for search have also been incorporated in the composite database. The National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) which hosts these nucleotide and protein databases in their large high available redundant array of computer servers, provides free access to the various persons involved in research. This also has link to OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man) which contains information about the proteins involved in genetic diseases.

Structure Databases  like sequence databases comes in two varieties, primary and secondary. Strictly speaking there is only one database that stores primary structural data  of biological molecules, namely the PDB. In the context of this database, term macromolecule stretches to cover three orders of magnitude of molecular weight from 1000 Daltons to 1000 kilo Daltons Small biological and organic molecules have their structures stored in another primary structure database the CSD, which is also widely used in biological studies. This contains the three dimensional structure of drugs, inhibitors and fragments or monomers of the macromolecule.

Application of the Biological Databases 

Sequence Analysis 

Every new searched sequence is first matched with the sequences present in the databases to identify its functionality and uniqueness.  If the sequence is already present in the databases further studies becomes easier if not then every minute information is collected about it and stored for future reference in databases.

Prediction of Protein Structure 

It is easy to determine the primary structure of proteins in the form of amino acids which are present on the DNA molecule but it is difficult to determine the secondary, tertiary or quaternary structures of proteins. For this purpose either the method of crystallography is used or tools of bioinformatics can also be used to determine the complex protein structures. By comparing the new data with existing data the bioinformatic tools can predict function and structures. 

Genome Annotation 

In genome annotation, genomes are marked to know the regulatory sequences and protein coding. It is a very important part of the human genome project as it determines the regulatory sequences.

Comparative Genomics

Comparative genomics is the branch of bioinformatics which determines the genomic structure and function relation between different biological species. For this purpose, intergenomic maps are constructed which enable the scientists to trace the processes of evolution that occur in genomes of different species. These maps contain the information about the point mutations as well as the information about the duplication of large chromosomal segments, which are extracted from the databases.

Health and Drug discovery

The tools of bioinformatics are also helpful in drug discovery, diagnosis and disease management. Complete sequencing of human genes has enabled the scientists to make medicines and drugs which can target more than 500 genes. Different computational tools and drug targets has made the drug delivery easy and specific because now only those cells can be targeted which are diseased or mutated. It is also easy to know the molecular basis of a disease, stored in the databases.

Conclusion 

The present test is to deal with a huge volume of information, for example, the ones created by the human genome venture, to enhance database configuration, create programming for database access and control, and gadget information passage strategies to make up for the fluctuated PC techniques and frameworks utilized in various research facilities. There is most likely that Bioinformatics apparatuses for proficient research will have huge effect in organic sciences and advancement of human lives.