Gene Therapy | Medical Evolution

Gene Therapy | Medical Evolution

Gautam Singh Rathore   July 27, 2018

Now a days it is being focused on the functionality and the speciality of genes to use them as precursor of antipeptides, so in case of any disorder no need to give antipeptides externally. Gene therapy is an emerging technique in which genes are preferred to treat or prevent the disorders inspite of using drugs and surgery’s. Researchers are testing possible approaches to gene therapy including,Replacing a mutated or defective gene that causes disease with a healthy copy of the gene, Inactivating, or “knocking out,” a mutated gene that is functioning improperly,Introducing a new gene which produces the anti effectives into the body to help fight a disease. Although gene therapy is a promising treatment option for a number of diseases like  inherited disorders, some types of cancer, and on certain viral infections, But this technique remains risky and is still under study to make sure that it will be safer and effective. Gene therapy is currently being tested only for diseases that have no other cures.

INTRODUCTION

Genes are the basic inheritance and regulatory molecules which commands the cell via expressing themselves in terms of proteins. Therapy with using genes is  a  novel  treatment method  in which    genes  or  short  oligonucleotide sequences  used as  therapeutic  molecules, instead of  using conventional  drug compounds and surgery’s . This technique  is  widely  used to treat  those  defective  genes  which are responsible in the development of diseases [1,2]. The treatment is better and preferred over conventional drugs methods [2]. Our genetic program is made up of thousand of genes, stretches of DNA, that generally code for different proteins that do particular jobs in the cells in our body. The idea of using drugs and antipeptides is replaced by gene therapy, as the genes express them selves in terms of peptides [3]. 

HISTORICAL ASPECTS 

The first idea of gene therapy was introduced by Theodore Friedmann and Richard Roblin during 1960’s. They are the first who gave the concept of treatment via introducing a particular gene which lasts to the next generations [4]. Now we have several gene editing and inserting tools e.g: CRISPR-CAS9,  which may be useful in cancer and viral treatments.

WHY GENE THERAPY! 

The research and the exploration of inherent molecules such as RNA and DNA gave rise to the concept of treating disorders and syndromes directly by an organism itself for life time.  As the inherent molecules have the capability to transfer generation over generation so transferring the gene of interest is permanent cure for the syndromes and disorders.

• The genes have the ability to inherit in next generation thus leading to permanent cure for the disorders and syndromes.
• Gene are the regulatory molecules present in cell so the defective ones can be removed which results in the permanent cure with no further medication.

REFFERNCES

1. Bainbridge, J. W. B.;  Smith, A.  J.;  Barker, S. S.;  Robbie, S.;  Henderson, R.;  Balaggan, K.;  Viswanathan, A.;  Holder, G. E. et  al. (2008). "Effect  of  Gene  Therapy  on Visual Function in  Leber's  Congenital  Amaurosis". New  England Journal  of  Medicine  358 (21): 2231–2239.   
2. Genetic Science Learning Center. (2012, December 1) What is Gene Therapy?. Retrieved January 30, 2018, from http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/genetherapy/intro/
3. Shalini Jaiswal*, 2Gautam Singh, Jawwad Husain2  1Assistant Professor, Chemistry Department, AMITY University, Noida Campus, India.  2Biotechnology Department, AMITY University, Noida Campus, India. *Corresponding author’s E-mail: shaliniajaiswal@gmail.com  “Mechanism and Antimicrobial Application of Histatin 5, Defensin and  Cathelicidin Peptides Derivatives”
4. Theodore Friedmann and Richard Roblin  "Gene therapy for human genetic disease?" 1972 Mar 3;175(4025):949-55

Venom or Poison |

Venom or Poison |

Gautam Singh Rathore   July 14, 2018

Venom and poison both are similar words but biologically they  are different. Many people thinks about venom and poison same thing here are the difference between them :

Venom

It is a natural poison secreted by reptiles and some other creatures. Venom is poisonous when it is injected in bloodstream only it never harm when eaten or drink through mouth. Venom is less harmful than artificial poisons and its effects and symptoms are slow to increase. Venom contains several enzymes or enzyme blocking parts which when comes in contact with blood stops the functionality of blood.

However some snakes have very dangerous venom like cobra and other related species but they can also be cured there anti-venoms have been developed. However survival rate is quite low because the patient can't be taken hospital within an hour. 

Poison 

It may be artificial or natural but in most of dangerous poison they are artificially made. They are much more toxic than venoms.  Their effect is too quick and fast. Some poisons are too much dangerous that they kill eventually when come contact with the person's inner part. Poison is harmful in both cases when comes in contact with bloodstream or in mouth.  Poison is designed to work on the metabolic pathways. Metabolic activities occur in every part of human body so wherever it will present start affecting.

Remember a person can be saved when he/she is infected with venom, by poison still hard to save. 

Lymphocytes | Guardians of Immunity

Lymphocytes | Guardians of Immunity

Gautam Singh Rathore   July 08, 2018

Lymphocytes are the White Blood Cells also called as Leukocytes. Which comprises of Natural Killer cells B and T cells. These are very important for maintaining the immune system because these are the cells which fight against,  identify and kill the infectious micro-organisms and other foreign substances. Bone marrow constantly produces cells that will become lymphocytes. Some will enter in bloodstream, but most will move through  lymphatic system. The lymphatic system is the group of tissues and organs, like the spleen, tonsils, and lymph nodes, that protect our body from infection. About 25 percent of the new lymphocytes remain in the bone marrow and become B cells. The other 75 percent travel to  thymus and become T cells.

The two main types of lymphocytes are known as T and B cells. These two types of lymphoid cells are developed and differentiated in the primary lymphoid organs. For example, T cells are developed in the thymus, where as the B lymphocytes are differentiated in the adult bone marrow and fetal liver. In birds, B cells are differentiated in the bursa of Fabricius. Further more, in the primary lymphoid organs T and B cells precursors acquire the ability for recognizing antigens through the development of specific surface receptors. NK- cells do not express antigen receptors on their cell membranes. They are capable to lyse certain tumor cell lines in vitro without being sensitized. NK cells are large granular lymphocytes (LGLs) Lymphocytes are produced in the primary lymphoid organs (thymus and adult bone marrow) at a high rate 109 per day. Some of these cells migrate to the blood circulation via the secondary lymphoid tissues (spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue). The average human adult has about 1012 lymphoid cell, and approximately 2% of the body weight is a lymphoid tissues. Lymphoid cells represent about 20% of the total leukocytes population in the adult circulation. Many mature lymphoid cells are long-lived, and may persist as a memory cells for several years, or even for the live time of the individual. 

Availability of Lymphocytes in the Body 

• Lymphocytes in the Blood Stream  
• Lymphocytes Outside the Bloodstream, in the Lymph vessels   
• Lymphocytes in the Lymph Nodes

What lymphocytes do in the body ?

There are actually many differences between B-cells and T-cells, even though they are both lymphocytes. B-cells and T-cells are associated with different parts of the immune system. One part of the immune system—the more B-cell dominant part—is focused on making antibodies that can bind to foreign invaders and lead to their destruction. The other part of the immune system—the more T-cell dominant part—is focused on recognizing the invaders and then directly killing them, through a very specific recognition sequence that leads to cell-to-cell battle. These two different turfs or part are described by specific terms. The artillery, or the antibody-producing side, is known as humoral immunity. The infantry, or the cell-to-cell battle side, is known as cell-mediated immunity.

B-cells are the cells that come to mind when thinking about antibodies, or humoral immunity, and T-cells are the cells that come to mind when thinking about cell-to-cell combat, cytotoxicity, or so-called cell-mediated immunity. In reality, there is often cooperation between B-cells and T-cells, just as there is coordination between those who fire the mortars and the infantry.

B-cells mature in the bone marrow and move to the lymph nodes. B-cells become plasma cells or memory cells when foreign antigens activate them; most B-cells become antibody-producing plasma cells; only some remain as memory cells. Memory B-cells help ensure that if the enemy is encountered again in the future, the mortars are prepared. Plasma cells can be found in lymph nodes and elsewhere in the body, where they work to produce large volumes of antibodies. Once antibodies are released into the blood and lymph, these antibody molecules bind to the target antigen to begin the process of neutralizing or destroying the foreign agent.

T-cells mature in the thymus and differentiate into different types. There are several types of T cells, including the following:

Cytotoxic T cells find and directly attack foreigners such as bacteria, viruses, and cancer cells.

Helper T cells recruit other immune cells and organize an immune response.

Regulatory T cells are thought to suppress the immune system so that it doesn't overreact (as it does in autoimmune diseases), however central aspects of the biology of these cells remain shrouded in mystery and continue to be hotly debated.

Natural killer T (NKT) cells are not the same thing as natural killer cells, but they do have similarities. NKT cells are cytotoxic T cells that need to be pre-activated and differentiate to do their work. Natural killer (NK) cells and NKT cells are subsets of lymphocytes that share common ground. Both can rapidly respond to the presence of tumor cells and participate in anti-tumor immune responses.

Memory T cells remember markers on the surface of bacteria, viruses, or cancer cells that they have seen before.

Difference between B and T cell

S.No	B Cell	T Cell
1.	Responsible for humoral immunity	Responsible for cell mediated immunity
2.	Life span is short	Life span is long
3.	Differentiate inside bone marrow	Differentiate inside thymus gland
4.	Surface antibodies present	Absence of surface antibodies
5.	Transformed into plasma cells by antigens	Transformed in small lymphocytes by antigens
6.	Secrete antibodies	Secrete Lymphokines
7.	Sub population are memory cells and plasma cells	Sub population are cytotoxic T,  Helper cells and Suppressor cells
8.	B-Cells or B-lymphocytes produce antibodies	Stimulates phagocytes and B cells in to activity

Vitamins | Generic name, Sources and Functions

Vitamins | Generic name, Sources and Functions

Gautam Singh Rathore   July 05, 2018

Generally there are 13 vitamins found in nature. These 13 vitamins are vital for human metabolism and immunity as they are the mutual part of several enzymes. You have heard about Vitamin B complex it is the most abundant and required complex found in nature. Vitamin B complex comprises of five B vitamins except B7,   B9 and B12. For details scroll bellow to find more....... 

Name of Vitamin	Generic Name(s)	Sources	Functions
Vitamin A	Retinol, Beta-carotene	Retinol from animal sources-: eggs,  liver,  fish Beta-carotene from plant source-: green vegetables,  carrot,  orange	Vision,  Skin,  Mucous membranes
Vitamin B1	Thiamine	Pork, Wheat, grain,  Breads,  Cereals, Legumes, Nuts & Seeds	Part of an enzyme,  Energy metabolism,  Nerve function
Vitamin B2	Riboflavin	Milk and its Products,  Green vegetables,  Cereals,  Whole grain	Part of an enzyme, Energy metabolism,  Skin Health
Vitamin B3	Niacin, Niacinamide, Nicotinamide	Meat,  Poultry,  Fish,  Cereals,  Green vegetables,  Butter,  Mushrooms	Part of an enzyme, Energy metabolism, Skin Health,  Digestive System
Vitamin B5	Pantothenic acid	Milk,  Vegetables,  Fruits	Part of an Enzyme, Energy metabolism
Vitamin B6	Pyridoxine, Pyridoxamine	Meat,  Poultry,  Vegetables,  Fruits	Part of an enzyme,  Protein metabolism,  RBC formation
Vitamin B7	Biotin	Milk, Vegetables,  Fruits,  Produced in gut by bacteria	Hairs, Part of an enzyme,  Energy metabolism
Vitamin B9	Folic acid	Green vegetables, Legumes, Seeds, Orange juice, Liver	Part of an enzyme,  RBC DNA & New cell formation
Vitamin B12	Cynocobalamine, Methylcobalamine, Adenosylcobalamine, Hydroxocobalamine	Meat,  Poultry,  Fish,  Sea food	Part of an enzyme,  New cell formation, Nerve function
Vitamin C	Ascorbic acid	Citrus fruits,  Vegetables, Tomatoes, Pepper	Antioxidant, Protein metabolism, Immune health,  Iron absorption
Vitamin D	Ergocalciferol,  Cholecalciferol	Egg, Liver,  Fish,  Milk	Calcium absorption,  Bone health
Vitamin E	Tocopherol	PUFA, Green vegetables,  Egg,  Nuts	Antioxidant, Cell wall protection
Vitamin K	Phylloquinone	Green vegetables ( Spinach,  Broccoli ) produced in gut by bacteria	Proper blood clotting, Strengthen Teeth & Bones